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  Home > Facts and Information > Critical Diseases Affecting Food Animals > Avian Respiratory Disease Research
 

Avian Respiratory Disease Research

Turkeys

(1998 2002)

A. MICROBIAL GENOMICS

  • Mapped the entire genome of Pasteurella multocida, a common poultry pathogen. 
  • Sequenced 15 U.S. Avian pneumovirus (APV) isolates (1997 1999) to demonstrate that the US viruses are different from European APVs. 
  • Continued efforts to keep track of genetic evolution of APV in U.S. have resulted in isolation of 9 more APV strains between 2000 and 2001, bringing the total number of U.S. isolates to 24 (See Table 1).

B. Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale

Developed diagnostic tests and demonstrated the use of a vaccine to control the disease.

C. Avian Pneumovirus (APV)

The Virus

  • Established an Avian Pneumovirus Center for isolation, characterization, and archiving of APV isolates. This APV Center has recently developed a website at http://www.cvm.umn.edu/apc 
  • APV can withstand cold and drying, making it adaptable to Minnesota weather. 
  • APV was isolated from Canadian geese and APV genome (RNA) found in wild birds.

APV Transmission 

  • Isolated APV from Canadian geese whose sequence is being determined.
  • Isolated APV from sentinel ducks and its genome has genetic similarity with the turkey viruses. 
  • Airborne transmission was demonstrated in a laboratory model.
  • Demonstrated neonatal infection in 11 flocks of turkey

APV Disease

  • APV infection causes severe depression of cell-mediated immunity. 
  • Co-infection with other viruses does not exacerbate APV infection.
  • Co-infection with bacteria results in more severe disease 
  • High density of birds results in more severe disease. 
  • APV infection interferes with vaccine protection. 

APV Diagnosis

  • Developedthreesensitive tests for diagnosis of APV infection. 
  • Demonstrated that the best place to sample for the APV is in the nasal turbinates using moist dacron swabs. 
  • Developed immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization assays to detect APV antigens or RNA in tissues. 

APV Epidemiology and Control

  • Prevalence studies showed that 30 to 40% of Minnesota turkey flocks are infected annually, with the disease concentrated in the six counties (Kandiyohi, Meeker, Morrison, Stearn, Swift, and Todd) located in Central Minnesota, which are also the counties with the highest population of turkeys. 
  • Prevalence and incidence studies showed that approximately 40% of all APV outbreaks occur in Spring (April May) and another 40% in autumn (October December)
  • Carcasses handling, movement between farms, and biosafety measures are risk factors for APV spread.
  • Prevalence data associated certain processors with higher APV transmission. 
  • A killed experimental APV vaccine was produced and evaluated. 
  • A live high tissue culture passage virus (p63) and a temperature sensitive mutant virus were produced and evaluated.
  • Work to generate a recombinant APV vaccine and a deletion mutant vaccine, both deemed as the long-term strategy for elimination of APV in United States is progressing. 

Extramural Funding

Using preliminary data obtained through funds from Minnesota State Rapid Response Fund and Minnesota Turkey Research and Promotion Council, the following research proposals were competitively funded by the USDA:

(i)                   Development of a Reverse Genetics System for Avian Pneumovirus - USDA-CSREES Grant # USDA/NRI 2002-35204-11563 [12/01/2001-11/31/2004] - $275,000 

(ii)                  Molecular Response of Turkey Respiratory Infections USDA-CSREES/NRI 2002-35205-11626 [12/01/2001-11/31/2004] - $225,000

Minnesota APV Isolates

Isolates

Date

County

APV/MN/Turkey/1A

November 1997

Becker

APV/MN/ Turkey/1B

November 1997

Becker

APV/MN/ Turkey/2A

November 1997

Meeker

APV/MN/ Turkey/2B

November 1997

Meeker

APV/MN/ Turkey/4A

April 1999

Steele

APV/MN/ Turkey/4B

April 1999

Steele

APV/MN/ Turkey/4C

April 1999

Steele

APV/MN/ Turkey/5

April 1999

Rice

APV/MN/ Turkey/6

July 1999

Steele

APV/MN/ Turkey/7

October 1999

Meeker

APV/MN/ Turkey/8

November 1999

Meeker

APV/MN/Turkey/9

November 1999

Meeker

APV/MN/ Turkey/10

November 1999

Kandiyohi

APV/MN/ Turkey/11

December 1999

Stearns

APV/MN/ Duck/12

August 1999

Steele

APV/MN/Turkey/13

June 2000

Meeker

APV/MN/Turkey/14

June 2001

Meeker

APV/MN/Turkey/16

October 2000

Ottertail

APV/MN/Turkey/17

October 2000

Kandiyohi

APV/MN/Turkey/18

October 2000

Kandiyohi

Viruses isolated from the same farm were assigned the same number, E.g. 4A, 4B, and 4C. The APV/MN 3 was lost. 

APV/MN/Goose/15A, APV/MN/Goose/15B, APV/MN/Goose/15C, and APV/MN/Goose/15D were isolated from Canadian geese capture in the Twin Cities Metropolitan area.

 

Publications during the 1998- 2002 period

Referred papers

1.                       Bennett, R.S., B. McComb, H-J Shin, M. K. Njenga, K.V. Nagaraja and D. A. Halvorson. Avian pneumovirus in wild Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and Blue-winged teal (Anasiscors).  Avian Diseases. IN PRESS.

2.                    Jacobs AJ, Njenga MK, Seal BS. Nucleotide and predicted amino acid sequence analysis of the nucleocapsid, phosphoprotein and second matrix protein genes for avian metapnuemovirus type B. Virus Res. Submitted February 2002.

3.                    Lopes, V.C., B. Velyudhan., D.A. Halvorson and K.V. Nagaraja. Survival of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in  poultry litter. Submitted to Avian Diseases. 2002

4.                    Amonsin, A., C. Hoellrich, J. F. X. Wellehan, L.-L. Li, J. Laber, and V. Kapur. 2000. DNA fingerprinting of Pasteurella multocida isolates from avian sources. Vet. Micorbiol. IN PRESS 

5.                    Chary P, Rautenschlein S, Njenga, MK, and Sharma JM. Immunosuppression in avian pneumovirus. Avian Diseases 46:153-161,2002

6.                    Halvorson DA, Is avian influenza research meeting the needs of the poultry veterinarian? The Veterinary Journal 2002 IN PRESS

7.                    Lwamba HCM, Cameron KT, Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV, Seal BS, Njenga MK. Antigenic cross-reactivity of among avian pneumoviruses of subgroups A, B, and C at the matrix but not nucleocapsid protein. Avian Disease. IN PRESS.

8.                    Lwamba HCM, Marques C, Lauer, DC, Seal BS, Njenga MK. Emergence of a new subgroup of avian pnuemovirus in United States A Review. Virus Res, In Press

9.                    Shin H-J, Cameron KT, Jacobs JA, Turpin EA, Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV, Kumar MC, Lauer DC, Seal BS, Njenga MK. Molecular epidemiology of subgroup C avian pneumovirus isolated from the United States and comparison with subgroup A and B viruses. J Clin Microbiol, 40:1687-1693, 2002

10.               Shin, H.J., B. McComb, A. Back, D. Halvorson, D.P. Shaw and K.V. Nagaraja. Susceptibility of broiler chickens to avian pneumovirus of turkey origin. Avian Dis. 2000 IN PRESS

11.               Halvorson DA. The control of H5 or H7 mildly pathogenic avian influenza: a role for inactivated vaccine. Avian Pathology 2002 31:5-12.

12.               Jirjis, FF, Noll, SL, Halvorson, DA, Nagaraja, KV, Townsend, EL, Goyal, SM, Shaw, DP. Rapid detection of avian pneumovirus in tissue culture by microinderect immunofluorescence test. J Vet Diagn Invest 2002 14:172-5

13.               Lopes V, Back A, Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV. Minimization of Pathological changes in Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys by temperature sensitive mutant strain. Avian Dis. 2002 46:177-85.

14.               Lopes VC, Back A, Shin H-J, Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV. Development, characterization and preliminary evaluation of a temperature sensitive mutant of ornithobacterium rhinotracheale for potential use as a live vaccine in turkeys. Avian Dis. 2002 46:162-68

15.               Rautenschlein, S, H.Y. Yeh, MK. Njenga and J.M. Sharma. Role of intrabursal T cells in infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) infection: T cells promote viral clearance but delay follicular recovery. Arch. Virol. 147:285-304, 2002

16.               Shin HJ, Jirjis FF, Kumar MC, Njenga MK, Shaw DP, Noll SL, Nagaraja KV and Halvorson DA. Neonatal avian pneumovirus infection in commercial turkeys. Avian Dis. 2002, 46:239-44.

17.               Shin HJ, Nagaraja KV, McComb B, Halvorson DA, Jirjis FF, Shaw DP, Seal BS, Njenga MK. Isolation of avian pneumovirus from mallard ducks that is genetically similar to viruses isolated from neighboring commercial turkeys. Virus Res. 2002 26;83:207-12.

18.               Yarwood JM, McCormick JK, Paustian ML, Kapur V, Schlievert PM. Repression of the Staphylococcus aureus accessory gene regulator in serum and in vivo. J Bacteriol 184:1095-1101, 2002

19.               Dar AM, Tune K, Munir S, Panigrahy B, Goyal SM, Kapur V. PCR-based detection of an emerging avian pneumovirus in US turkey flocks. J Vet Diagn Invest 13:201-205, 2001

20.               Dar AM, Munir S, Goyal SM, Abrahamsen MS, Kapur V. Sequence analysis of the nucleocapsid and phosphoprotein genes of avian pneumoviruses circulating in the US. Virus Res 79:15-25, 2001

21.               Gulati BR, Munir S, Patnayak DP, Goyal SM, Kapur V. Detection of antibodies to U.S. isolates of avian pneumovirus by a recombinant nucleocapsid protein-based sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Clin Microbiol 39:2967-2970, 2001

22.               Heeder CJ, Lopes VC, Nagaraja KV, Shaw DP, Halvorson DA. Seroprevalence of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in commercial laying hens in the north central region of the United States. Avian Dis. 2001 45:1064-7.

23.               Heeder C.J., V.C. Lopes., K.V. Nagaraja., D.P. Shaw and D.A. Halvorson: Seroprevalence of                Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in commercial laying hens in North Central region of the U.S. Avian Diseases  45: 1064-1067.2001

24.               Jirjis FF, Noll SL, Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV, Shaw DP. Immunohistochemical detection of avian pneumovirus in formalin-fixed tissues. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2001 13:13-6.

25.               Lopes V, Back A, Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV. Minimization of pathologic changes Jirjis FF, Noll SL, Martin F, Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV, Shaw DP. Vaccination of turkeys with an avian pneumovirus isolate from the United States. Avian Dis. 2001 45:1006-13.

26.               May BJ, Zhang Q, Li LL, Paustian ML, Whittam TS, Kapur V. Complete genomic sequence of Pasteurella multocida, Pm70. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:3460-3465, 2001

27.               Paustian ML, May BJ, Kapur V. Pasteurella multocida gene expression in response to iron limitation. Infect Immun 69:4109-4115, 2001

28.               Shin HJ, Njenga MK, Halvorson DA, Shaw DP, Nagaraja KV. Susceptibility of ducks to avian pneumovirus of turkey origin.Am J Vet Res. 2001 62:991-4.

29.               Zhang Y, Sharma JM. Early posthatch protection against Marek's disease in chickens vaccinated in ovo with a CVI988 serotype 1 vaccine. Avian Dis 45:639-645, 2001

30.               Chiang, S.J., A.M. Dar, S.M. Goyal, M.A. Sheikh, J.C. Pedersen, B. Panigrahy, D. Senne, D.A. Halvorson, K.V. Nagaraja, and V. Kapur. A modified enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of avian pneumovirus antibodies. J. Vet. Diag. Invest. 12:381-384. 2000.

31.               Goyal, S.M., S.J. Chiang, A.M. Dar, K.V. Nagaraja, D.P. Shaw, D.A. Halvorson, and V. Kapur. Isolation of avian pneumovirus from an outbreak of respiratory illness in Minnesota turkeys. J. Vet. Diag. Invest. 12:166-168. 2000

32.               Goyal SM, Chiang SJ, Dar AM, Nagaraja KV, Shaw DP, Halvorson DA, Kapur V. Isolation of avian pneumovirus from an outbreak of respiratory illness in Minnesota turkeys. J Vet Diagn Invest 12:166-168, 2000

33.               Gulati, B.R., K.T. Cameron, B.S. Seal, S.M. Goyal, D.A. Halvorson, and M.K. Njenga. Development of a highly sensitive and specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on recombinant matrix protein for detection of avian pneumovirus antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:4010-4014. 2000

34.               Jirjis, F.F., S. Noll, K.V. Nagaraja, D.A. Halvorson and D.P. Shaw. Avian pneumovirus infection in turkeys: Experimental reproduction of the disease. Avian Dis. 44:222-226. 2000

35.               Kim IJ, You SK, Kim H, Yeh HY, Sharma JM. Characteristics of bursal T lymphocytes induced by infectious  bursal disease virus.J Virol. 2000;74: 8884-92. 36.               Kim IJ, Sharma JM. IBDV-induced bursal T lymphocytes inhibit mitogenic response of normal  splenocytes. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2000 Apr 19;74(1-2):47-57.

37.               Lopes, V., G. Rajashekara, A. Back, D.P. Shaw, D.A. Halvorson, and K.V. Nagaraja. 2000. Outer membrane proteins for serological detection of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys. Avian Dis 44:957-962,2000

38.               St Hill CA, Sharma JM. Viral pathogenesis in chicken embryos and tumor induction in chickens after in ovo exposure to serotype 1 Marek's disease virus. Avian Dis. 2000;44:842-52.

39.               Rautenschlein S, Suresh M, Sharma JM. Pathogenic avian adenovirus type II induces  apoptosis in turkey spleen cells. Arch Virol. 2000; 145:1671-83. 40.               Rautenschlein S, Miller RL, Sharma JM. The inhibitory effect of the imidazoquinolinamine  S-28828 on the pathogenesis of a type II adenovirus in turkeys. Antiviral Res.  2000;46(3):195-205. 41.               Rautenschlein S, Sharma JM. Immunopathogenesis of haemorrhagic enteritis virus (HEV) in turkeys.  Dev Comp Immunol. 2000;24:237-46.  42.               Sharma JM, Kim IJ, Rautenschlein S, Yeh HY. Infectious bursal disease virus of chickens: pathogenesis  and immunosuppression. Dev Comp Immunol. 2000;24:223-35.

43.               Shin, H.J., G. Rajashekara, F.F. Jirjis, D.P. Shaw, S.M. Goyal, D.A. Halvorson, and K.V. Nagaraja. Specific detection of avian pneumovirus (APV) US isolates by RT-PCR. Arch. Virol. 145:1239-1246. 2000

44.               Townsend, E., D.A. Halvorson, and K.V. Nagaraja. Susceptibility of an avian pneumovirus isolated from Minnesota turkeys to physical and chemical agents. Avian Diseases. 44:336-342. 2000

45.               Gagic M, St Hill CA, Sharma JM. In ovo vaccination of specific-pathogen-free chickens with vaccines  containing multiple agents. Avian Dis. 1999;43:293-301. 46.               Kim IJ, Gagic M, Sharma JM. Recovery of antibody-producing ability and lymphocyte repopulation  of bursal follicles in chickens exposed to infectious bursal disease virus. Avian Dis. 1999;43:  401-13. 47.               Rautenschlein S, Subramanian A, Sharma JM. Bioactivities of a tumour necrosis-like factor released by  chicken macrophages. Dev Comp Immunol. 1999;23: 629-40. 48.               Rautenschlein S, Sharma JM, Winslow BJ, McMillen J, Junker D, Cochran M. Embryo vaccination of  turkeys against Newcastle disease infection with recombinant fowlpox virus constructs  containing interferons as adjuvants. Vaccine. 1999 18:426-33. 49.               Rautenschlein S, Sharma JM. Response of turkeys to simultaneous vaccination with hemorrhagic enteritis  and Newcastle disease viruses. Avian Dis. 1999 43:286-92. 50.               Sharma JM. Introduction to poultry vaccines and immunity. Adv Vet Med. 1999;41:481-94.

51.               Sharma J. M. Introduction to Poultry vaccines and immunity. Advances in Veterinary Science & Comparative Medicine. Academic Press. 41:481-490. 1999 

52.               Sprenger, S.J., D.A. Halvorson, D.P. Shaw, K.V. Nagaraja. 1999 Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in commercial laying type chickens. Avian Dis. 44:725-729.

53.               Sprenger, S.J., D.A. Halvorson, D.P. Shaw, K.V. Nagaraja. Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in  turkeys: Immunoprophylaxis. Avian Dis. 44:549-555. 1999 54.               St Hill CA, Sharma JM. Response of embryonic chicken lymphocytes to in ovo exposure to lymphotropic  viruses. Am J Vet Res. 1999 ;60 :937-41. 55.               Yeh HY, Winslow BJ, Junker DE, Sharma JM. In vitro effects of recombinant chicken interferon-gamma  on immune cells. J Interferon Cytokine Res. 1999;19:687-91.

56.               Back, A., D.A. Halvorson, R. Gireesh, and K.V. Nagaraja. 1998. Development of a serum plate agglutination test to detect antibodies to Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale. J. Veterinary Diagnostic Invest, 10:84-86. 1998.

57.               Back, A., G. Rajashekara, D.A. Halvorson and K.V. Nagaraja. 1998. Tissue distribution of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale in experimental infected turkeys. Veterinary Record, 143: 52-53. 

58.               Chiang, S.J., A. Dar, S.M. Goyal, K.V. Nagaraja, D.A. Halvorson, V. Kapur, and B. Panigrahy. Isolation of avian pneumovirus in QT-35 cells. Vet. Rec. 143:596. 1998

59.               Kemal K., J. M. Sharma, B. J. Winslow, D. E. Junker, S. Reddy, M. Cochran, and J. McMillen. Recombinant fowlpox viruses coexpressing chicken type I IFN and Newcastle disease virus HN and F genes: influence of IFN on protective efficacy and humoral responses of chickens following in ovo or post-hatch administration of recombinant viruses. Vaccine Vol. 16, pp.1496-1503, 1998.

60.               Rautenschlein S, Miller RL, Sharma JM. Interferon induction in turkeys by oral administration of the  imidazoquinolinamine S-28828 and modulation of the pathogenesis of Escherichia coli. Vet  Immunol Immunopathol. 1998 24;66:127-41.

61.               Roepke, D.D., A. Back, D.P. Shaw, K.V. Nagaraja, S.J. Sprenger and D.A. Halvorson. Isolation and identification of Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale from commercial turkey flocks in the upper Midwest. Avian Dis, 42:219-221. 1998

62.               Sharma, J. M. Introduction to Avian Immunology. 1998 Handbook of Vertebrate Immunology. Academic Press.73.

63.               Sprenger, S.J., A. Back, D.P. Shaw, K.V. Nagaraja, D.C. Roepke and D.A. Halvorson. Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys: Experimental reproduction of the disease. Avian Dis, 42:154-161. 1998. 

64.               Sharma JM, Davis WC, Kenzy SG. Etiologic relationship of skin tumors (skin leukosis) of chickens to Marek's disease.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1970 44(4):901-11.

Non-referred papers

65.               Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV, Shaw DP, Kariuki Njenga M, Noll SL, Bennett R. Control of Viral Respiratory Diseases of Turkey. Gobbles 58 (8): 9-10, 2001.

66.               Halvorson, D.A., K.V. Nagaraja, D.P. Shaw, M.K. Njenga, S. Noll and R. Bennett. Control of viral respiratory diseases of turkeys.  Gobbles (2001 Research Issue), (October), pp. 9-10, 2001.

67.               Humphrey C.L, D.A. Halvorson, K.V. Nagaraja  and M.K. Njenga. Antigenic Cross-reactivity among avian pneumoviruses of subgroups A, B and C at the Matrix but not Nucleocapsid proteins. Gobbles (2001 Research Issue), (October), pp. 12-13, 2001.

68.               Lwamba HC, Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV, Kariuki Njenga M. Antigenic Cross-reactivity Among Avian Pneumoviruses of Subgroups A, B, and C at the Matrix but not Nucleocapsid Proteins. Gobbles 58 (8): 12-13, 2001.

69.               Nagaraja, K.V., H.J. Shin, S. M. Goyal,  DA. Halvorson, M.K. Njenga and D. P. Shaw:  Epidemiology, Modes of transmission and control of Avian pneumovirus.  Gobbles (2001 Research Issue), (October), pp. 160-18, 2001.

70.               Nagaraja, K.V., V. Lopes, and D.A. Halvorson. Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys.  Gobbles (2001 Research Issue), (October), pp. 19-20 2001

71.               Goyal S, Njenga MK, Sheikh A, Lin, X. Avian Pneumovirus ELISA: Using single dilution ELISA to predict the serum antibody titer. Gobbles 56 (12): 19 February 2000.

72.               Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV, Shaw DP, Njenga MK, Goyal S, Noll S. Control of viral respiratory diseases of turkeys. Gobbles 57: 6-7, 2000.

73.               Halvorson, D.A., K.V. Nagaraja, D.P. Shaw, M.K. Njenga, S. Goyal and S. Noll:  Control of viral respiratory diseases of turkeys.  Gobbles (2000 Research Issue), (October), pp. 6-9, 2000.

74.               Nagaraja, K.V., V. Lopes, D.A. Halvorson and D.P. Shaw:  Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys.  Gobbles (2000 Research Issue), (October), pp. 12-14, 2000

75.               Nagaraja, K.V., H.J. Shin, D.A. Halvorson, M.K. Njenga and D. Shaw:  Bioecology, epidemiology and characterization of Avian pneumovirus.  Gobbles (2000 Research Issue), (October), pp. 10-12, 2000.

76.               Njenga MK, Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV, Goyal SM, Shaw D. Sequence analysis of avian pnuemovirus strains isolated in Minnesota between 1997 and 1999. Gobbles 57: 14-15, 2000

77.               Njenga, M.K., H.J. Shin, D.A. Halvorson, K.V. Nagaraja, S. Goyal and D.P. Shaw: Sequence analysis of Avian pneumovirus strain involved in Minnesota between 1997 and 1999.  Gobbles (2000 Research Issue), (October), pp. 14-16, 2000.

78.               Sharma JM, Chary P, Kariuki Njenga M, Rautenschlein S. Immunosuppression in Turkeys Caused by Avian Pneumovirus. Gobbles 57 (8):20-21, 2000.

79.               Sharma JM, Chary P, Njenga MK, Rautenschlein S. Immunosuppression in turkeys caused by avian pneumovirus. Gobbles 57:20-21, 2000.

80.               Shaw DP, Noll SL, Jirjis FF, Halvorson DA, Nagaraja KV, Goyal SM, Njenga MK, Janni K. Pathogenesis of avian pnuemovirus infection in turkeys. Gobbles 57:22-23, 2000

81.               Shaw, D.P., S. Noll, D. Faris, F. Jirjis, D.A. Halvorson, K.V. Nagaraja, S. Goyal, M. Njenga and K. Janni:  Pathogenesis of Avian pneumovirus infection in turkeys.  Gobbles (2000 Research Issue), (October), pp. 22-23 & 29, 2000.

82.               Halvorson, D.A., K.V. Nagaraja, S. Chiang, A. Dar, S. Goyal, K. Friendshuh, F. Jirjis, V. Kapur, D. Lauer, S. Munir, S. Noll, D.P. Shaw and E. Townsend:  Control of viral respiratory diseases of turkeys.  Gobbles (1999 Research Issue), (October), pp. 7-9, 1999.

83.               Nagaraja, K.V., A. Back, V. Lopes, D.A. Halvorson and D.P. Shaw:  Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale infection in turkeys.  Gobbles (1999 Research Issue), (October), pp. 16-17, 1999.

84.               Nagaraja, K.V., H.J. Shin, E. Townsend, D.A. Halvorson, S. Goyal and D.P. Shaw: Bioecology, epidemiology and characterization of Avian pneumovirus:  Gobbles (1999 Research Issue), (October), pp 17-19, 1999.

85.               Sharma, J.M., and S. Rautenschlein. 1999. In ovo vaccination protects turkeys against Newcastle disease, Fowlpox. Gobbles. 55:15-16 

86.               Sharma, J. M., S. Rautenschlein, M. Suresh and P. Chary. 1999 Mechanism of immunity in turkeys. Proc. 2nd International Symposium on turkey diseases. Berlin, Germany. March 24-27, (proceedings)

87.               Shaw, D.P., S. Noll, D.A. Halvorson, K.V. Nagaraja, S. Goyal, F. Jirjis and A. Sheikh: Pathogenesis of Avian pneumovirus infection in turkeys.  Gobbles (1999 Research Issue), (October), pp. 21-22, 1999

88.               Sheikh Mohammad, A. Dar, F. Jirjis, S. Munir, S. Goyal, K.V. Nagaraja, D.A. Halvorson, D.P. Shaw, S. Noll, and V. Kapur. Vaccination against avian pneumovirus of turkeys. Gobbles 1999

 

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